Civilizations+in+Crisis

- Position of artisan workers in the towns deteriorated because of competition from imported manufacturers from Europe; riots caused. - Merchants began to depend more and more on European counterparts for commercial dealings. - Ottomans were threatened by Russia's forced Westernization, which gave Russia superior warfare technology and weaponry. - Weak attempts to create other Christian alliances while not protecting other areas. - Depended on reforms to keep them alive throughout the 20th century; but increased tensions within ruling elite. - **Selim III**'s reforms aimed to improve army + navy, but angered Janissary forces; eventually assassinated by a Janissary. - **Mahmud II** forcibly killed off the Janissaries with his own army. - Mahmud used Westernization on the grounds that their society would improve since Europeans had been more powerful than they were. - **Tanzimat reforms** = reforms in the form of education, sciences, communication, politics, etc. from Europe/West. - Tanzimat reforms affected adversely for the artisans, little effect on women's positions. - **Abdul Hamid** reformed again the Ottomans to complete despotism in response to Western-educated aristocrats' conflict w/ the more conservative and powerful groups such as the ayan and the ulama; still advocated Westernization, just in certain areas like communication or warfare. - **Ottoman Society for Union and Progress** - Young Turks opposing Abdul Hamid's regime; determined to save the empire by reforms, assassinations + coups. - Young Turks managed to save the empire by staving opposing European powers against each other. - Ottoman Empire = dead due to Arab + Turks conflicts with each other; Young Turks were still subjugating the Arabs. || - Diminishing capability of the Ottoman Empire to defend them left their areas easily conquerable. - Napoleon was able to crush Mamulk forces led by **Murad** due to their ignorance of the powerful artillary that the French possessed. - British attacks on French prevented French from taking over Egypt; Egypt still worried because it was spared because of European forces. - **Muhammad Ali** westernized his armies to match those of European armies. - Ordered peasants to match European production; increase in production. - Successors of Muhammad, **khedives**, did not try to expand Egypt's territory. - Famine during era of Muhammad's successors for the peasantry. - Khedives used the revenue from taxes for luxurious goods. - Europeans continued to lend money to financiers and khedives for cheap access to cotton + construction of **Suez Canal**, which transformed Egypt into one of the most strategic places on the earth, military and commercial link between European powers. - Ineptitude of the khedival regime led to intellectual thinkers believing that the regime had to go. - British troops began to take control of Egypt -- British advisors, officials, etc. - Egyptian oppression had caused great hostility + resentment; especially abolishment of the slave trade. ||
 * Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey || Western Intrusions and Crisis: Egypt ||
 * - Decline brought by succession of weak rulers within a political and social order focused on sultan; fights over succession.

2. The Qing Empire

MI: Manchu nomads took advantage of China's political instability and managed to take over the empire. However, while they were the new rulers, they still kept Chinese customs and traditions in place. ++: The Manchus were able to control China due to Chinese reliance on them to take care of uprisings; however, the Manchus were an even greater threat than they expected them to be. ++: The examination exams and education were kept in place for determining political positions. ++: Adopted Chinese ceremonies, rituals, etc. Improved the calender.

MI: Generally, the Manchus wished to preserve China's customs and values, but they did however wish to alter policies that were the source of problems. ++: Confucianist values, such as respect for the old and males, or the lack of power for women, prevailed under Manchu rule. ++: Lowered taxes to help reduce unrest in rural China. ++: Encouraged diversification of crops; led to increased overseas/European trade, creation of new merchant class, **compradors**, specializing in trade w/ China.

MI: China under the Manchu rule eventually grew worse, and involved corruption, lack of funding, and widespread crimes. ++: The bureaucracy were full of people who bribed their way to their positions or cheated on the examinations needed to advance their positions. ++: Lack of funding caused by the corrupt bureaucracy who selfishly used that money for their own purposes led to a decline in public works projects, which led to the flooding of the Yellow River, causing destruction of both lives and crops. ++: In disarray, banditry became widespread once again, a sign that the dynasty would collapse.

MI: China steadily fell under European control and influence after the **Opium War**. ++: Opium was highly popular amongst the rich in China; European merchants sought opium as a way to trade with China besides trading silver. ++: When the Chinese realized that they were losing favorable balance of trade b/c of opium, they tried to stop it, having **Lin Zexu** lead the effort of getting rid of the European influence. ++: The Opium War broke out, with the Chinese being forced to surrender due to Britain's superior technology and firepower despite lower numbers. This led to British control over the Chinese trade with the Europeans, as well as their bureaucracy.

MI: China's further collapse was caused by a series of rebellions as well as their stubbornness to resist reforms that could have saved them. ++: The **Taiping Rebellion** initially gathered some support for its positive reforms, but quarrels amongst its leaders, as well as the loss of supporters due to the creation of radical beliefs such as attacking the Confucianist values. ++: The **self-strengthening movement** sought Westernization as a way to improve their military strength and to better China's society. They put down the Taiping Rebellion. ++: Empress **Cixi**, however, put down anybody who advocated for reforms inspired from the Europeans and exiled them to places like the Forbidden City. ++: The **Boxer Rebellion** further declined China's progress by creating even more European intervention into their affairs/trade.

MI: Increasing tensions amongst the civilians led to the destruction of some of the most entrenched values of China. ++: Many civilians, especially those of the middle class, joined secret underground organizations intended to try and overthrow the government. ++: When the government began to rely on railroad loans, these organizations, as well as student protests and military mutiny banded together for the first time to overthrow the Manchus. ++: Empress Cixi conceded that the examination test was to be abolished so that China could survive and progress in the presence of imperialistic powers.